Class 12th History Chapter 7 An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara

Introduction

CLASS 12TH HISTORY PART 2 Chapter 7 – An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara explains the rise, prosperity, and decline of the Vijayanagara Empire. This chapter highlights how political power, religion, art, and trade connected in medieval South India. Moreover, it helps students understand the empire’s administrative systems and architectural achievements.

Origin and Expansion

Vijayanagara, meaning “City of Victory,” served as both a city and an empire. Two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the empire in 1336 CE, and over time it stretched from the Krishna River in the north to the peninsula’s southern tip. At its peak, the empire became a major political and economic power. However, in 1565 CE, the Vijayanagara army suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Talikota, the city fell to invading forces, and raiders plundered its wealth. Consequently, the site later became known as Hampi, named after the local goddess Pampadevi. People who spoke different languages and followed various religious traditions lived within the empire, and thus Vijayanagara displayed considerable cultural diversity. On its northern frontier, the rulers confronted the Deccan Sultans and the Gajapatis of Orissa, while many regions of the empire had earlier hosted strong kingdoms such as the Cholas and Hoysalas, who built famous temples like Brihadeeswara at Thanjavur and Chennakeshava at Belur.

Exploring Hampi

Colonel Colin Mackenzie rediscovered the ruins of Hampi around 1800 CE, and he prepared the first survey map while working for the East India Company. Initially, he gathered information from the priests of the Virupaksha Temple and local traditions about Pampadevi. Later, nineteenth-century photographers documented the monuments, and historians collected numerous inscriptions from temples. Subsequently, scholars compared these findings with accounts by foreign travelers and with literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit to reconstruct the city’s history.

Colin Mackenzie

Born in 1754 CE, Colin Mackenzie became a leading antiquarian, surveyor, and cartographer. In 1815, the British government appointed him the first Surveyor General of India, and he served until his death in 1821. Therefore, his mapping and documentation provided a crucial foundation for studying CLASS 12TH HISTORY PART 2 Chapter 7 – Vijayanagara.

Rulers, Trade, and Military

Contemporaries often referred to Vijayanagara as the Karnataka Empire, and the state maintained active relations with neighboring powers. For example, the title Gajapati meant “lord of elephants,” while Asvapati referred to “lord of horses,” and Narapati denoted “lord of people.” The empire relied heavily on cavalry; hence it imported horses from Arabia and Central Asia, and Arab merchants initially controlled this trade. Later, the Portuguese, who reached India in 1498 CE, influenced maritime trade and introduced superior firearms and naval tactics. In addition, Vijayanagara hosted bustling markets for spices, textiles, and gems, and these markets both reflected and fueled the city’s prosperity.

Dynasties of Vijayanagara

The empire passed through four main dynasties:

• Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485) — Founded by Harihara and Bukka.

• Saluva Dynasty (1485–1503) — Military commanders who took control.

• Tuluva Dynasty (1503–1570) — Represented by Krishnadeva Raya, who expanded and consolidated the state.

• Aravidu Dynasty (1570–1670) — Ruled from Penukonda and later Chandragiri after Talikota.

Krishnadeva Raya expanded the realm between 1512 and 1520, conquered the Raichur Doab, subdued the rulers of Orissa, and defeated the Sultan of Bijapur. He also patronized temple building and public works, and he wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu. After his death in 1529 CE, political tensions and rival generals weakened central authority.

Rai, Nayak, and Administration

The Nayakas functioned as military chiefs who controlled forts and maintained armed followers; they usually spoke Telugu or Kannada. The Amara-Nayaka system allowed these chiefs to collect revenue, maintain troops, and provide local administration in return for military service. Over time, some Nayakas became effectively independent, although initially they offered loyalty and tribute to the Raya. In addition, the Nayakas funded temples and irrigation works; hence they helped sustain local economies while supplying the empire with military strength.

Water Resources, Fortifications, and Roads

Vijayanagara’s location near the Tungabhadra River gave it a natural basin and reliable water sources. Granite hills surrounded the city, and numerous streams from these hills fed the river. Engineers built tanks and canals — notably the Kamalapuram Reservoir and the Hiriya Canal — to store and channel water into agricultural fields and the urban centre. Because the region remained relatively dry, such irrigation works proved essential.

Moreover, observers like Abdur Razzaq recorded that the city featured up to seven concentric lines of fortification; these walls enclosed not only the urban core but also fields and gardens. Builders constructed the outer walls without mortar, using precisely fitted stone blocks so that they held together by weight and shape. Inside, broad roads and planned streets connected neighborhoods, markets, and temple complexes. Finally, the city presented Indo-Islamic features in gateways and domes, reflecting cultural exchanges with neighboring states.

Royal Centre and Ceremonial Life

The Royal Centre, located in the southwest, contained over sixty temples and many palaces. Temples served as instruments of royal legitimacy, and rulers promoted their status by patronage. Important royal structures included:

• Raja’s House — the largest palace-like complex, surrounded by high double walls.

• Sabha Mandapa — a pillared hall used for assemblies and ceremonies.

• Mahanavami Dibba — a vast platform (about 11,000 sq ft base and 40 ft high) where rulers celebrated festivals and displayed state power.

During the Mahanavami festival, the king performed rituals, inspected the army, and received tribute from Nayakas who presented gifts and taxes. Consequently, these ceremonies reinforced political bonds and public spectacle.

Lotus Mahal and Hazara Rama Temple

The elegant Lotus Mahal appears in the royal complex; although scholars debate its exact purpose, many consider it a council hall or palace pavilion. By contrast, the Hazara Rama Temple contained exquisite Ramayana reliefs and served royal ritual needs. Together, these monuments demonstrate the period’s artistic sophistication.

Religious Centre and Temple Architecture

The northern sector near the Tungabhadra formed the religious heart, housing the Virupaksha and Vittala temples. The Virupaksha Temple remains an active shrine, and rulers publicly associated themselves with Lord Virupaksha, often using the title “Hindu Suratrana” to assert divine sanction.

Temples functioned as major social, cultural, and economic institutions: rulers granted land to temples, and temples supported education, festivals, and local markets. Architects introduced large-scale features such as monumental Raya gopurams, pillared mandapas, long corridors, and stone-paved chariot lanes lined with vendors’ pavilions. The Vittala Temple stands out for its stone chariot and musical pillars, which testify to the era’s technical skill.

Rediscovery, Mapping, and Preservation

Following Mackenzie’s initial surveys, historians combined travel narratives, inscriptions, and fieldwork to reconstruct Vijayanagara’s layout. In the twentieth century, the Archaeological Survey of India and Karnataka’s archaeology department began preserving Hampi’s remains. In 1976, they launched a comprehensive documentation project that divided the area into 25 grid sectors, and scholars later subdivided these into smaller units. Through careful excavation and mapping, researchers recovered foundations of shrines, residences, roads, and market platforms, which help us imagine the once-bustling imperial capital.

Conclusion

CLASS 12TH HISTORY PART 2 Chapter 7 – An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara reveals how a powerful South Indian state combined military strength, economic wealth, religious patronage, and architectural innovation. Ultimately, the ruins of Hampi continue to remind us of the empire’s grandeur and of India’s rich medieval heritage.

Conclusion

The CLASS 12TH HISTORY PART 2 Chapter 7 – An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara reveal how British colonial policies transformed India’s countryside.
Through systems like Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwadi, rural India faced economic exploitation and social disruption. Peasant uprisings, such as the Santhal and Deccan rebellions, symbolized resistance against injustice and marked crucial chapters in India’s colonial history.

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